ÿþ<html> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Language" content="en-gb"> <meta name="GENERATOR" content="Microsoft FrontPage 5.0"> <meta name="ProgId" content="FrontPage.Editor.Document"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=unicode"> <title>Al Nadim - The Fihrist - 1.1</title> <style> <!-- p.MsoPlainText {margin-bottom:.0001pt; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Courier New"; margin-left:0mm; margin-right:0mm; margin-top:0mm} --> </style> </head> <body> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="left"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-weight: 700"> <font size="4">The Fihrist of al-Nad+m</font><font size="3">, A Tenth-century survey of Muslim culture</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="left"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"><b>Bayard Dodge</b></font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText" style="text-indent: -36.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="center"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">In the name of Allh, the Merciful, the Compassionate, who is sufficient for us, upon whom we depend and whose aid we invoke</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="center"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="center"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-weight: 700"> <font size="4">The First Section of the First Chapter</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="center"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">with a description of the languages cf the Arabs and foreign peoples, the characteristics of their ways of writing, their types of script and forms of calligraphy</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">. <a href="#1.">[1]</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText" align="center">&nbsp;</p> <ul> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: italic"> <font size="3"><a href="#a1" style="text-decoration: none">Remarks on Arabic Writing</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a2" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Himyarite Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a3" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Scripts of Copies of the Quran</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a4" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Some of the Transcribers of the Copies of the Quran</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <a href="#a5" style="text-decoration: none"><font size="3"><i>A Copy Transcribed from What Was Written in the Handwriting of Abu al-Abbas ibn Thawabah</i></font></a></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a6" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Naming of the Measured Scripts and a Description of What Is Written with Each of These Scripts Which None Can Equal</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <a href="#a7" style="text-decoration: none"><i><font size="3">From [Sources] Other than the Handwriting of lbn </font></i><font size="3"><i>Thawabah</i></font></a></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a8" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Account of al-Barbari al-Muharrar and His Son</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i><a href="#a9" style="text-decoration: none"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Names of Persons Who Wrote Copies of the Quran in Gold&nbsp; and Who Are Remembered&nbsp; </font></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <font size="3"> &nbsp; </font></span> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Names of the Bookbinders Who Are Remembered&nbsp; </font></span> <span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> &nbsp; </font> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <font size="3">Remarks about the Excellence of the Pen</font></span></a></i></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i><font size="3"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"> <a style="text-decoration: none" href="#a10">Remarks on the Excellencies of Penmanship and Praise of Arabic Speech</a></span></font></i></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"><a href="#a11" style="text-decoration: none"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: italic"> <font size="3">Remarks about Ugliness of Handwriting</font></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp; </font></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> &nbsp; </font></span></i><font size="3"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: italic"> Remarks about the Excellencies of Books</span></font></a></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a12" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Syriac Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a13" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Persian Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a14" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Hebrew Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a15" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Greek Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a16" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Script of the Langobardi and Saxons</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <a href="#a17" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic"> <span lang="en-us"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">T</font></span><font size="3"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman">he Script of China</span></font></a></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a18" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Manichaean Script</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a19" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Script of al-Sughd</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a20" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about al-Sind</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: italic"> <font size="3"><a href="#a21" style="text-decoration: none">Remarks about the Negroes</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a22" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about the Turks and Those Related to Them</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"><span lang="en-us"> <font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> <a href="#a23" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Russia</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a24" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">The Franks</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a25" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">The Armenians and Others</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a26" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about Sharpening Pens</a></font></span></li> <li> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a href="#a27" style="text-decoration: none; font-style: italic">Remarks about Types of Paper</a></font></span></li> </ul> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a1">R</a>emarks on Arabic Writing</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Men have differed concerning who first originated the Arabic script. Hishm <i> al-Kalb+</i> said that the first to form it was a group of Bedouin Arabs encamped with  Adnn ibn Udd. Their names were Abk Jd, Hawwz, Hut#t#+, Kalamkn, S#a fad#, and Qurusa t. <a href="#2.">[2]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">There is this from [what is written in] the handwriting of Ibn <i>al-Kkf+</i> in the following way:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Arabs originated writing for their names and then discovered other letters not in their names: <i>t , kha , dhl, z , sh+n, ghayn</i>, which they called <i>al-rawdif</i>. <a href="#3.">[3]</a> It is said that these men were kings of Midian, whose destruction was on the Day of the Cloud, at the time of <i>Shu ayb</i> the Prophet, for whom may there be peace. <a href="#4.">[4]</a></font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="1.">1.</a></b> Cf. Khaldkn, <i>Muqaddimah</i> (Rosenthal), II, 381 ff.; III, 282. See Flügel s article in <i>ZDMG</i>, XIII (1859), 559.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="2.">2.</a></b> T#abar+, <i>Annales</i>, I, 203, spells these names differently but gives them as legendary giant kings.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="3.">3.</a></b> This word means  palm sprouts, the  back parts, or the layers of fat on the rear of a camel s hump. Another form of the plural means one who rides behind on a camel.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="4.">4.</a></b> See Qur n 7:85 93; 9:84 95; 15:80 84; 26:176 89; 29:36 37.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">7</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Kalamkn</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> s elegy was composed by his sister:</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Kalamkn my support has been stricken down,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The central post of the encampment has been destroyed.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">To him chief of the people</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Has death come in the midst of a cloud.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Over them has a fire been kindled,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">As nought has become their place of dwelling.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">I have read what was written in the handwriting of Ibn Ab+ <i>Sa d </i>in the following form and construction: Abjd, Hwar, H#t#, Kalammn, S# , Fad#, Qarasat. They say that they were foreign peoples who, while camping with  Adnn ibn Iyd and the like, became Arabized and formed the Arabic writing, but it is Allh who knows. <a href="#5.">[5]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Ka b</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> said, and before Allh I am not responsible for his statement, that the first to originate the Arabic and Persian scripts and other forms of writing was <i> Adam</i>, for whom be peace. Three hundred years before his death he wrote on clay which he baked so that it kept safe even when the Flood overflowed the earth. Then each people found its script and wrote with it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Ibn <i>  Abbs</i> said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The first persons to write Arabic were three men of Bawln, a tribe inhabiting al-Anbr, <a href="#6.">[6]</a> who came together and originated letters, both separated and joined. They were <i>Murmir</i> ibn Murwah, <i>Aslam</i> ibn Sidrah, and <i> mir</i> ibn H#idrah; [the first and the third were] also called Murrah and H#idlah. Murmir originated the forms, Aslam the separations and connections, and  mir the diacritical points.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">When the people of al-H#+rah <a href="#7.">[7]</a> were asked,  From whom did you derive Arabic? they replied,  From the inhabitants of al-Anbr. It is also said that Allh, Blessed and Almighty, caused <i>Isma +l</i> (Ishmael) to speak clear Arabic when he was twenty-four years old.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="5.">5.</a></b> The tribal names in this list and the one in the preceding paragraph evidently belong to foreign tribes which came from the north as protégés of  Irq+ Bedouin peoples, whom they taught how to write. These names do not appear in Durayd,<i> Geneal.</i>, and Qutaybah, <i>Ma rif</i>.  Adnn ibn Iyd was a subtribe of Ma add in  Irq, rather than the original <i>  Adnn</i>. See  Iyd, <i>Enc. Islam</i>, II, 565.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="6.">6.</a></b> For the tribe of Bank Bawln, see Durayd, <i>Ishtiqq</i>, p. 397; Durayd,<i> Geneal.</i>, p. 237. Al-Anbr is a city on the Euphrates northwest of Baghdd.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="7.">7.</a></b> Al-H#+rah was near Babylon, the center of Christian tribes attached to the Ssnid dynasty.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">8</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus saith Muh#ammad ibn Ish#q [al-Nad+m]: What is near to the truth, acceptable to the mind, and recorded by a reliable authority is that the Arabic speech was the language of H#imyar, T#asm, Jad+s, Aram, and H#awayl, of Arab Bedouin stock. <a href="#8.">[8]</a> Then when Ism +l arrived at the Haram [shrine of Makkah], grew up, and matured, he married into the Jurham clan <a href="#9."> [9]</a> of <i>Mu wiyah</i> ibn Mud#d# al-Jurhum+, and his children learned their speech from these uncles. As time passed on, the descendants of Ism +l derived one word after another, forming names for many objects as phenomena turned up and appeared.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">After speech had been developed, good literary poetry appeared among the people of  Adnn, increasing in quantity after the time of <i>Ma add</i> ibn  Adnn. Thus, though each one of the Arab tribes had a dialect by which it was distinguished and which it made use of, at the beginning they shared in common. It is said that the Arabs were prevented from [further] amplifying their language because of the mission of the Prophet, for whom may there be peace, in revealing the Qur n.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">One thing which confirms all of this is the quotation of <i>Makh#kl</i> from his men that the earliest innovators of Arabic writing were the Naf+s, the Nad#r, the Taym , and the Dkmah, <a href="#10.">[10]</a> descendants of Ism +l, who developed it in detail, and then it was made distinctive by <i>Qdkr</i> and <i>Nabt</i> ibn Hamaysa ibn Qdkr. <a href="#11.">[11]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It has been said that in ancient times a group of the people of al-Anbr formed the letters <i>alif, b , ta, th </i>, <a href="#12.">[12]</a> which the Arabs borrowed. Moreover, I have read in a book of Makkah, written by <i> Umar</i> ibn Shabbah in his own handwriting, that  A group of the scholars of Mud#ar informed me that the person who wrote this</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="8.">8.</a></b> Aram refers to the Aramaeans and H#imyar to the ancient kingdom of southern Arabia. For the other names see Durayd, <i> Ishtiqq</i>, pp. 362, 524, 526.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="9.">9.</a></b> Jurham was a well-known tribe which settled at Makkah; see  Djurhum, <i>Enc. Islam</i>, I, 1066.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="10.">10.</a></b> The Naf+s, the Taym , and the Dkmah were ancient tribes called in Gen. 25:14-15 the Naphish, the Tema, and the Dkmah. The Nad#r ibn Kinnah was a well-known tribe which employed the Quraysh as guides. See T#abar+, <i>Annales</i>, I, 1094, 1103, 1104, 1739.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="11.">11.</a></b> The Beatty MS corrects Flügel s imperfect text in connection with Nabt ibn Hamaysa .</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="12.">12.</a></b> This is equivalent to saying in English, <i>a, b, c, d</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">9</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Arabic was <i>al-Jazm</i>, a man of the tribe of Mukhallad ibn al-Nad#r ibn Kinnah, after which the Arabs themselves wrote. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">From another source:  The person who brought writing to the Quraysh at Makkah was Abk <i>Qays</i> ibn  Abd Manf ibn Zuhrah. It is also said that it was <i> H#arb</i> ibn Umayyah. It is related that when the Quraysh demolished the Ka bah, they found in one of its supports a stone on which was inscribed,  Al-<i>Siluf</i> ibn  Abuqar conveys to his lord a salutation. It was three thousand years old.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">There was in the library of al-<i>Ma mkn</i> something written on hide in the handwriting of <i> Abd</i> al-Mut#t#alib ibn Hshim mentioning the claim of  Abd al-Mut#t#alib ibn Hshim of Makkah against so-and-so, the son of so-and-so, the H#imyarite of the Warl Tribe <a href="#13.">[13]</a> of S#an  for a thousand silver coins (s., <i>dirham</i>) measured by iron. When he called upon him for this, he proffered the witness of Allh and the two angels. It is said that the handwriting was like that of women.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">One of the Arab writers was <i>Usayd</i> ibn Ab+ al- *s#. When a flood stream drained off from the ground at the Masjid al-Skr (Mosque of the Wall) by the tomb of al-Murratkn, there was found a stone upon which there was inscribed,  I, Usayd ibn Ab+ al- *s, may Allh show mercy to the sons of <i> Abd</i> Manaf [But] was an Arab called by this name?</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">From what was written in the handwriting of Ibn Ab+ <i>Sa d</i>:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They record that when <i>Ibrh+m</i> (Abraham), for whom may there be peace, saw the children of <i>Isma +l</i> (Ishmael) with their maternal Jurhum uncles he said,  Oh, Ism +l, who are these? He replied,  My children with their Jurhum uncles. Then Ibrh+m said to him in the tongue with which he used to speak, which was the ancient Syriac,   <i>Urub</i> Thus he said to him,  Mingle them together. </font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">But it is Allh who knows [the truth].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a2">R</a>emarks about the H#imyarite Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; A reliable authority asserts that he heard some Yamanite chiefs say that H#imyar used to write with the Musnad script, with varied forms of <i>alif, b , t </i>. I myself have seen a passage in the library of</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="13.">13.</a></b> In the Beatty MS the word seems to be <i>warl</i>. It could be <i>wazl</i>. It may be an ancient H#imyarite tribe or a misprint. Perhaps, however, it is a variation of the old name of the city Azl; see Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, III, 421.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">10</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">al-<i>Ma mkn</i> which I have translated,  What the Commander of the Faithful  Abd Allh al-<i>Ma mkn</i>, may Allh honor him, ordered the translators to transcribe. <a href="#14."> [14]</a> It contained H#imyarite script and I give you an exact reproduction of what was in the transcription [Example 1]</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_010a.jpg" width="618" height="137"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 1</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus saith Muh#ammad ibn Ish#q [al-<i>Nad+m</i>]: The first of the Arab scripts was the script of Makkah, the next of al-Mad+nah, then of al-Bas#rah, and then of al-Kkfah. For the <i>alifs</i> of the scripts of Makkah and al-Mad+nah there is a turning of the hand to the right and lengthening of the strokes, one form having a slight slant. <a href="#15.">[15]</a> This is an Example of it [Example 2]</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_010b.jpg" width="594" height="68"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 2</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a3">S</a>cripts of Copies of the Qur n</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Those of Makkah, the people of al-Mad+nah, the N+m, <a href="#16.">[16]</a> the Muthallath, and the Mudawwar. Also those of al-Kkfah and</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="14.">14.</a></b> Evidently al-<i>Nad+m</i> translated only the title of the passage, not the whole of it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="15.">15.</a></b> The Arabic phrase translated as  lengthening of the strokes is literally  raising of the fingers. See Abbott in <i>Ars Islamica</i>, VIII, Nos. 1 and 2 (1941), 71. The article deals with other scripts, too. See also Abbott, <i>Rise of the North Arabic Script</i>; Pope<i>, Survey of Persian Art</i>, II, 1707 ff; Jeffery in <i>Muslim World</i>, XXX, No. 2 (April 1940), 191-98.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Professor Arberry in <i>Islamic Research Association Miscellany</i>, I (1948), 24, thinks that a contribution of Professor Minovi in Pope, <i>Survey of Persian Art</i>, II, 1710, is correct. It explains that the Beatty MS is more nearly correct than the Flügel edition and that the words of the script illustrated in the text,  in the name of Allh, the Merciful, the Compassionate, are an example of the Makkah-Mad+nah scripts.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="16.">16.</a></b> Flügel has al-Ta im.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">11</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> al-Bas#rah, and the Mashq, the Tajw+d, the Sit#awati, the Masnk , the Munbadh, the Murs#af, <a href="#17.">[17]</a> the Is#bahn+, the Sijill+, and the Firmkz, <a href="#18.">[18]</a> which is derived and read by the Persians. It is a recent development in two forms, the Ns#ar+ and the Mudawwar.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus saith Muh#ammad ibn Ish#q [al-Nad+m]: The man who at the beginning [of Islm] first wrote copies of the Qur n, being honored for the beauty of his penmanship, was <i>Khlid</i> ibn Ab+ al-Hayyj; I have seen a copy transcribed in his handwriting. Sa d <a href="#19.">[19]</a> singled him out to write copies of the Qur n, poems, and reports for al-<i>Wal+d</i> [I] ibn  Abd al-Mlik, and it was he who wrote in gold the inscription in the prayer niche (<i>al-qiblah</i>) of the Mosque of the Prophet, may Allh bless him and give him peace, from  And the sun and its brighrness to the end of the Qur n. <a href="#20.">[20]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It is reported that <i> Umar</i> [II] ibn  Abd al- Az+z said,  I want you to transcribe a Qur n for me like this model. So he [Khlid ibn Ab+ al-Hayyj] made a copy of the Qur n for him, exercising great care.  Umar started to look it over and admire it, but when he found the price to be excessive, he returned it to him.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Mlik</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> ibn D+nr, a protégé of <i>Smah</i> ibn Luwa + ibn Ghlib, who was called Abk Yah#y, used to transcribe copies of the Qur n for pay. He died in the year one hundred and thirty [A.D. 747/48]. It is said that he was <i>Mlik</i> ibn D+nr ibn Dd Bahr ibn Hash+sh ibn Rz+. <a href="#21.">[21]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a4">S</a>ome of the Transcribers of the Copies of the Qur n</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Khashnm</i></font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> of al-Bas#rah and al-<i>Mahd+</i> of al-Kkfah lived during the days of al-<i>Rash+d</i>. We have not seen their equals even as late as our own time. Khashnm used to write long <i>alifs</i>, striking with the pen.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="17.">17.</a></b> Some of these names are taken from the Beatty MS, which does not make the spelling clear.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="18.">18.</a></b> See Pope, <i>Survey of Persian Art</i>, II, 1717.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="19.">19.</a></b> It has not been possible to identify this man, although he must have been someone of importance at Damascus during the early eighth century.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="20.">20.</a></b> In other words, the inscription which Khlid ibn Ab+ al-Hayyj wrote was a quotation from the Qur n which began with the phrase  And the sun and its brightness and continued until the end of the Qur n. The quotation is from the Qur n 91:1. The Mosque of the Prophet is at al-Mad+nah.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="21.">21.</a></b> This sentence appears in the Beatty MS. The names are not written clearly enough for one to be sure of their spelling.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">12</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among them [the transcribers] there was Abk <i>Juday</i>, who used to write the elegant copies of the Qur n at the time of al-<i>Mu tas#im</i> and was one of the great, skillful Ckfic writers. Following these there were in the group of writers of the Ckfic [script]: Ibn Umm <i>Shaybn</i>, al-<i>Mash#kr</i>, Abk <i>Kham+rah</i>, Ibn <i>H#umayrah</i>, and in our own time Abk al-<i>Faraj</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Then among the transcribers who wrote copies of the Qur n with the Muh#aqqaq, Mashq, and similar scripts, there were Ibn Ab+ <i>H#assn</i>, Ibn al-<i>H#ad#ram+</i>, Ibn <i>Zayd</i>, al-<i>Quryn+</i>, Ibn Ab+ <i>Ft#imah</i>, Ibn <i>Mujlid</i>, <i>Sharsh+r</i> the Egyptian, Ibn <i>Sayr</i>, Ibn al-H#asan al-<i>Mal+h#</i>, al-<i>H#asan</i> ibn al-Ni l+, <a href="#22.">[22]</a> Ibn <i>H#ad+dah</i>, Abk <i> Aqil</i>, Abk Muh#ammad al-<i>Is#bahn+</i>, Abk Bakr Ah#mad ibn Nas#r, and his son Abk al-<i>H#usayn</i>, both of whom I have seen.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a5">A</a> Copy Transcribed from What Was Written in the Handwriting of Abk al- Abbs ibn </font><i><font size="3">Thawbah</font></i></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Qut#bah</i></font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> was the first transcriber during the period of the Bank Umayyah. He developed the four forms of writing, deriving one from the other, for Qut#bah was the best Arabic penman on earth.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Al-<i>D#ah#h#k</i> ibn  Ajln, the scribe, followed him at the beginning of the caliphate of the Bank al- Abbs. He added to what Qut#bah did, and next to him was the best calligrapher in the world. After him, during the caliphates of al-<i>Mans#kr</i> and al-<i>Mahd+</i>, there was <i>Ish#q</i> ibn H#ammd, the scribe, who augmented what was accomplished by al-D#ah#hk#.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Then there were a number of pupils of Ish#q ibn H#ammd, among whom was <i>Yksuf</i>, the scribe, nicknamed Laqwah the Poet, who was the best penman among the people. Among them there were also <i>Ibrh+m</i> ibn al-Mujashshir, who improved on Yksuf, as well as <i>Shuqayr</i> the Servant, a slave of Ibn <i> Qayykm</i>, who was the tutor of al-<i>Qasim</i> ibn al-Mans#kr. One of them was <i>Than </i>, the woman scribe, who was a slave girl of Ibn Qayykm, and among them was  Abd al-Jabbr al-<i>Rum+</i>. Among them there were also al-<i>Sha rn+;</i> al-<i>Abrash;</i> <i>Sulaym</i> the servant-scribe, a servant of <i>Ja far</i> ibn Yah#y; <i> Amr</i> ibn Mas adah; <i>Ah#mad</i> ibn Ab+ Khlid; Ah#mad al-<i>Kalb+</i>, a</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="22.">22.</a></b> Al-Quryn+ and Sharsh+r are not clearly written in the Beatty MS, and al-Ni l+ is also a guess.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">13</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">scribe of al-<i>Ma mkn;</i> <i> Abd</i> Allh ibn Shaddd; <i> Uthmn</i> ibn Ziyd al- bid; <i>Muh#ammad</i> ibn  Ubayd Allh, nicknamed al-Madan+; and Abk al-Fad#l S#lih# ibn  Abd al-Malik al-<i>Tam+m+</i> of al-Khursn. It was these who wrote the original measured scripts, never since equaled.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a6">N</a>aming of the Measured Scripts and a Description of What Is Written with Each of These Scripts Which None Can Equal <a href="#23.">[23]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Among them is the Jal+l script, which is the father of all scripts and which no one can emulate except with rigorous training. Yksuf</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="23.">23.</a></b> The pages were measured with animal hairs (<i>sha r al-birdhawn</i>), probably the hairs of donkeys. The full-size page produced in a paper factory was the <i>t#kmr</i>, 24 hairs in width. The next size was the <i>thuluthayn</i>, 16 hairs, then the <i>nis#f</i> 12 hairs, and finally the <i>thuluth</i>, 8 hairs. The scripts were measured to fit these different-size pages and named accordingly. For a different theory, see Abbott, <i>Rise of the North Arabic Script</i>, p. 32. Qalqashnd+, <i>S#ubh# al-A sh</i>, III, 52, presents several theories about how the scripts were named. He does not make it clear whether by <i>qalam</i> he means  pen or  style of writing, so that his descriptions are not conclusive. For a description of the measured scripts and their names, see <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 27 ff.; Abbott in <i>Ars Islamica</i>, VIII, Nos. 1 and 2 (1941), 90, and Abbott, <i>Rise of the North Arabic Script</i>, pp. 17</font></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> </font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">30; Durustkyah, <i>Kitb al-Kuttb</i>, pp. 65</font></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> </font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">74; and T#+b+, <i>Jmi Mah#sin Katbat al-Kuttb</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">Ibn <i> Thawbah</i> gives two lists of twelve scripts each. It seems reasonable to suppose that the lists should be arranged as follows:</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <div align="center"> <center> <table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="5" width="70%" id="AutoNumber1"> <tr> <td width="50%"> <p align="center"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> First List</font></span></td> <td width="50%"> <p align="center"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Second List</font></span></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="50%"> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Jal+l</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Sijillt</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-D+bj</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-T#kmr al-Kab+r</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Thuluthayn al-S#agh+r (al-Khirfj)</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Zanbkr</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-H#aram</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Mu mart</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al- Uhkd</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Amthl al-Nis#f (light and open)</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Qis#as#</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Awjibah</font></span></td> <td width="50%"> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Sumay +</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Ashr+yah</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Khirfj al-Thaq+l (Khaf+f al-T#kmr al-Kb+r)</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Khirfj al-Khaf+f</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Mufattah#</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Mumsak</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Mudawwar al-Kab+r (al-Ri s+)</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Mudawwar al-S#agh+r</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Khaf+f al-Thuluth al-Kab+r</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Riqa </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Mufattah# al-Nis#f</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"> Al-Narjis</font></span></td> </tr> </table> </center> </div> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">Two other scripts are mentioned in the summary and evidently taken for granted as being offshoots from the Jal+l. They are the Thuluth al-Kab+r al-Thaq+l (big, heavy, third-size) and Nis#f al-Thaq+l (heavy, half-size). A number of the scripts in the list are developments from these two.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">14</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Laqwah says that  the Jal+l script vexes the loins of the scribe. There are written with it the genuine documents sent by the caliphs to the kings of the earth, and derived from it there are two scripts, the Sijillt and the D+bj. From the medium Sijillt script [al-Awsit#] are derived two scripts, the Sumay + and the Ashr+yah scripts.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">With the D+bj script are written the official documents and from it is derived the T#kmr al-Kab+r script, also used for documents, and an outgrowth of the D+bj. From it is derived the Khirfj or the Thuluthayn al-S#agh+r al-Thaq+l script, which is derived from the T#kmr and with which are written communications from the caliphs to the agents and emirs in the outlying regions. From it are derived three scripts: the Zanbkr script, which grows out of the Thuluthayn and is used for writing on the half-size sheets of paper (<i>ins#f</i>) and from which nothing is derived  the Mufattah# script is derived from it; <a href="#24.">[24]</a> the H#aram script, which is written on the half-sheets sent to the kings, derived from the Thaq+l; the Mu mart script, derived from the Thuluthayn  with it are written the half-sheets [exchanged] between the kings.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Four other scripts spring from these two scripts, that is, from the H#aram script and the Mu mart script: the  Uhkd script, an out-growth from the H#aram, used for writing on the two-thirds-size sheets, from which nothing is derived; the Amthl al-Nis#f script, from which are developed two scripts, light (<i>khaf+f</i>) and open (<i>mufattah#</i>); the Qis#s# script growing out of the H#aram and the Mu mart script, written on the half-size sheet and from which nothing was derived; and the Ajwibah script, derived from the H#aram and the Mu mart script, used for writing on the third-size sheets of paper (<i>al-ithlth</i>), nothing being derived from it. These are twelve scripts from which twelve other scripts are derived.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among them is the Khirfj al-Thaq+l script, which is the light form of the T#kmr al-Kab+r and developed from it. With it are written official documents and from it is derived the Khirfj al-Khaf+f script. There is also the Sumay + script, which resembles the Sijillt handwriting and springs from the Sijillt al-Awsat#. With it are written official documents and other comrnunications.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="24.">24.</a></b> Probably the Mufattah was derived from the Zanbkr.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">15</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among them there is also a script called the Ashr+yah script, derived from the Sijillt al-Awsat# handwriting. With it are written emancipations of slaves and sales of land and houses and other things. Among them is a script called the Mufattah#, sprung from the Thaq+l al-Nis#f. The Mumsak script, with which they write on the half-size sheets, is derived from it. Three scripts grow out of it: a script called the Mudawwar al-Kab+r, which the scribes of this period call the Ri s+ and which is written on the half-size sheets; also derived from it is a script called the Mudawwar al-S#agh+r, a general-utility script with which are written records, traditions, and poems; and a script called Khaf+f al-Thuluth al-Kab+r. It is written on the half-size sheets, being derived from Khaf+f al-Nis#f al-Thaq+l. From it there springs a script called the Riq , which is derived from Khaf+fal-Thuluth al-Kab+r and with which are written signed edicts and similar things.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among them is a script called the Mufattah# al-Nis#f, derived from al-Nis#f al-Thaq+l, and among them also is the Narjis script, written on the third-size sheets and derived from Khaf+f al-Nis#f.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">These are twenty-four scripts, all of which are derived from four scripts: the Jal+l script, the T#kmr al-Kab+r script, the Nis#f al-Thaq+l script, and the Thuluth al-Kab+r al-Thaq+l script. The derivation of these four scripts is from the Jal+l, which is the father of the scripts.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a7">F</a>rom [Sources] Other than the Handwriting of lbn </font><i> <font size="3">Thawbah</font></i></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; People continued to write according to the forms of the ancient script which we have mentioned until the beginning of the  Abbsid rule, and at the time when the Hshimites <a href="#25.">[25]</a> appeared, the copies of the Qur n were written specifically with these forms [scripts].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Then there developed a handwriting called the  Irq+, which was the Muh#aqqaq known as Warrq+. Elaboration and improvement continued until it culminated for al-<i>Ma mkn</i>, whose companions and scribes undertook to beautify their calligraphy, concerning which the people vied with one another.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="25.">25.</a></b> The Bank al- Abbs, or caliphs of the  Abbsid dynasty.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">16</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Then there appeared a man known as al-<i>Ah#wal</i> al-Muh#arrir, a craftsman of the Barmakids, <a href="#26.">[26]</a> who was acquainted with the significations and forms of writing. He spoke about its forms and rules, dividing it into categories. This man used to write the communications dispatched by the sultan to the kings of the distant regions in the official documents. He was in the depths of misfortune and filth, as well as coarse, not fit for anything. <a href="#27.">[27]</a> When he classified the scripts, he gave precedence to the heavy scripts. The finest among these is the T#kmr script, which is written on the full-size page (<i>al-t#kmr</i>), either with a piece of palm or perhaps it is written with a pen. With it they transmit letters to the kings.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among the scripts there are the Thuluthayn script, the Sijillt script, the  Uhkd script, the Mu mart script, the Amnt script, the D+bj script, the Mudabbaj script, the Muras#s#a script, and the Tashj+ script.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">When Dhk al-Ri satayn al-<i>Fad#l</i> ibn Sahl arose, he invented a script which was the best of the scripts and known as the Ri s+. It branched into a number of scripts, among which there are: the Ri s+ al-Kab+r script, the Nis#f script from the Ri s+, the Thuluth script, the S#agh+r al-Nis#f script, the Khaf+f al-Thuluth script, the Muh#aqqaq script, the Manthkr script, the Wash+ script, the Riq script, the Muktabt script, the Ghubr al-H#ilyah script, the Narjis script, and the Biyd# script.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a8">A</a>ccount of al-Barbar+ al-Muh#arrar and His Son</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; This point of the book requires that we mention him. He was <i>Ish#q</i> ibn Ibrh+m ibn  Abd Allh ibn al-S#ubbh ibn Bishr ibn Suwayd al-Aswad al-Tam+m+ and subsequently al-Sa d+. <a href="#28.">[28]</a> Ibrh+m was squint-eyed, but Ish#q taught al-<i>Muqtadir</i> and his children. He was nicknamed Abk al-H#usayn, and this Abk al-H#usayn wrote an</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="26.">26.</a></b> See Glossary, Barmak family.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="27.">27.</a></b> Although the Beatty MS is quite clear, this sentence does not seem to suit the rest of the passage. It is possible that al-Ah#wal was a S#kf+ and therefore poor and dirty; or the passage may be garbled, and al-Ah#wal may have been Abk Khlid al-Ah#wal, vizier of al-Ma mkn.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="28.">28.</a></b> This means  fortunate and may have been given as a nickname after Ish#q had become tutor to the caliph.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">17</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">epistle about penmanship and writing entitled <i>The Precious Object of the Lover</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">No one else appeared during his time who was a more skillful penman or better acquainted with writing. His brother, Abk al-<i>H#asan</i>, was like him, walking in his footsteps. His son was Abk al-Qsim <i>Ism +l</i> ibn Ish#q ibn Ibrh+m, whose son, Abk Muh#ammad, was al-<i>Qsim</i> ibn Ism +l ibn Ish#q. Among his children there was also Abk al- Abbs  Abd Allh ibn Ab+ Ish#q. These men were preeminent for their beauty of penmanship and knowledge of writing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Before the time of Ish#q there was a man known as Ibn <i>Ma dn</i>, whom Ish#q drew upon for information. Among the young men of Ibn Ma dn there was Abk Ish#q Ibrh+m al-<i>Nims</i>. Among the writers there were also the sons of Wajh al-<i>Na jah</i>, in addition to Ibn <i>Mun+r</i>, al-<i>Zanfalat#+</i>, and al-<i>Zaw id+</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus saith Muh#ammad ibn Ish#q [al-<i>Nad+m</i>]: Among the viziers and secretaries who wrote with ink <a href="#29.">[29]</a> there were Abk Ah#mad al-<i> Abbs</i> ibn al-H#asan and Abk al-H#asan <i> Al+</i> ibn  *s [ibn D kd] and Abk  Al+ Muh#ammad ibn  Al+ ibn Muqlah, whose birth was after the afternoon prayer on Thursday, nine nights before the end of Shawwl, in the year two hundred and seventy-two [A.D. 885/86], and who died on Sunday when ten nights of Shawwl had gone by during the year three hundred and twenty-eight [A.D. 939/40]. <a href="#30.">[30]</a> His brother, Abk  Abd Allh al-<i>H#asan</i> ibn  Al+ [ibn Muqlah], also wrote with ink. He was born at daybreak on Wednesday at the end of the month of Ramadn during the year two hundred and seventy-eight [A.D. 891/92] and died in the month of Rab+ al-khir during the year three hundred and thirty-eight [A.D. 949/50]. The like of these two men has not been known in the past, or even as late as our own time. They wrote according to the calligraphy of their [grand] father Muqlah. The real name of Muqlah was  Al+ ibn al-H#asan ibn  Abd Allh, Muqlah being a nickname.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="29.">29.</a></b> The Beatty MS has  and secretaries, evidently referring to members of the government secretariat who were not viziers. Two words are used for  ink : <i>al-midd</i> is used here, and <i>al-h#ibr</i> in the sentence following. See Flügel, p. 9 n.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="30.">30.</a></b> The system of dividing the lunar month into halves and counting the days and nights of the first half forward and the last half backwards is explained in Durustkyah, <i>Kitb al-Kuttb</i>, p. 80. Roughly, 30 sun years are similar to 31 moon years.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">18</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Some of their kinsmen and children wrote during their lifetime and afterward, but they did not maintain their standards. One of these [kinsmen] might excel in connection with one letter following another or one word after another, but it was Abk  Al+ and Abk  Abd Allh who achieved perfection as a whole.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Those of their children who were penmen were Abk Muh#ammad <i> Abd</i> Allh, Abk al-<i>H#asan</i> ibn Ab+  Al+, Abk Ah#mad <i>Sulaymn</i> ibn Ab+ al-H#asan, and Abk al-<i>H#usayn</i> ibn Ab+  Al+. I have read a copy of the Qur n written in the handwriting of their grandfather Muqlah.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a9">T</a>he Names of Persons Who Wrote Copies of the Qur n in Gold&nbsp; and Who Are Remembered</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Al-<i>Yaqt#+n+</i>, Ibrh+m al-<i>S#agh+r</i>, Abk <i>Mks</i> ibn  Ammr, Ibn al-<i>Saqat#+</i>, <i>Muh#ammad</i> [al-Khuzaym+], and Ibn <i>Muh#ammad</i> Abk  Abd Allh al-Khuzaym+ and his son of our own time. <a href="#31.">[31]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Names of the Bookbinders Who Are Remembered</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Ibn Ab+ al-<i>H#ar+sh</i>, who used to bind books in the Treasury of Knowledge of al-<i>Ma mkn</i>, <a href="#32.">[32]</a> Shafah al-<i>Miqrd#</i>, al-<i> Ujayf+</i>, Abk  *s ibn Shayrn, Dimynah al-<i> sar</i> ibn al-H#ajjm, <i>Ibrh+m</i> and his son <i>Muh#ammad</i>, and al-<i>H#usayn</i> ibn al-S#affr.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Remarks about the Excellence of the Pen</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Al-<i> Attb+</i> said,  Pens are the beasts of burden of understanding. Ibn Ab+ <i>Duwd</i> said,  The pen is the ambassador of the mind, its apostle, its furthest reaching tongue, and its best interpreter. T#urayh# ibn Ism +l al-<i>Thaqaf+</i> said,  Men s minds are under the nibs of their pens. Aristotle (Arist#t#l+s) said,  The pen is the active cause, the ink the material one, script is the principle of form, and style is the cause of perfection. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Al- Attb+ said,  Books smile as pens shed tears. Al-Kind+ said,  The pen (<i>al-qlm</i>) has the same value as  usefulness (<i>nf</i> ), for</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="31.">31.</a></b> As only a few vowel signs are given in the Arabic text, the names in this and the following list may not be entirely correct.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="32.">32.</a></b> Khiznat al-H#ikmah; the library attached to the Bayt al-H#ikmah or research center established by al-Ma mkn, A.D. 830, at Baghdd.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">19</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">f</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> = 80, <i>n</i> = 50, <i></i> = 1, and <i> </i> = 70, which totals 201. <i>A</i> = 1, <i>l</i> = 30, <i>q</i> = 100, <i>l</i> = 30, <i>m</i> = 40, which totals 201. <i> Abd</i> al-H#am+d said,  The pen is a tree, the fruits of which are words, and contemplation is a sea, whose pearl is wisdom, wherein is quenching of mental thirst. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a10">R</a>emarks on the Excellencies of Penmanship and Praise of Arabic Speech</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Sahl</i></font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> ibn Hrkn, who was the director of the Bayt al-H#ikmah <a href="#33.">[33]</a> and known as Ibn Rahykn al-Ktib (the Secretary), said,  The number of Arabic letters is twenty-eight, like the number of the stations of the moon. The greatest number of them which a word with its extra letters can contain is seven, corresponding to the seven heavenly bodies. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">He also said,  The letters which are added are twelve, like the twelve signs of the zodiac. Then he said,  The letters which are elided with the <i>lm</i> (<i>l</i>) of the article are fourteen, like the hidden stations of the moon under the earth, while the fourteen manifest letters which do not elide are like the visible stations remaining. Three movements form the declensions; <i>al-raf </i> [nominative], <i>al-nas#b</i> [accusative], and <i>al-khafad</i> [dative], for the movements of nature are three: motion from the center like that of fire, motion to the center like that of the earth, and motion on a center like that of the heavens. Beautiful is this coincidence and beautiful the interpretation! <a href="#34.">[34]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Al-<i>Kind+</i> said,  I do not know of any other form of writing in which the letters undergo so much beautifying and refining as they do in Arabic writing. It also makes possible greater speed than can be attained in other forms of writing. </font> </span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Plato</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> (Aflt#kn) said,  Handwriting is the shackle of the rnind. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Euclid</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> (Aql+dus) said,  Handwriting is a spiritual designing, even though it appears by means of a material instrument. Abk <i>Dulaf</i> said,  Handwriting is the garden of the sciences. Al-</font><i><font size="3">Naz#z#m</font></i></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="33.">33.</a></b> MS 1135 says he was director of the books at Bayt al-H#ikmah.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="34.">34.</a></b> For an explanation of the stations of the moon, see  Astrology, <i>Enc. Islam</i>, I, 496. In the last sentence in this paragraph, one or both adjectives may be  novel instead of  beautiful ; &nbsp;the Beatty MS is not clear. It is not clear whether this sentence is part of the quotation or was inserted by the author.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">20</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">said,  Handwriting is rooted in the spirit, even though it appears by means of bodily senses. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a11">R</a>emarks about Ugliness of Handwriting</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; It is said that bad penmanship is one of the two chronic diseases. It is also said that bad handwriting is, in connection with culture, a disease. It is further said that ugly penmanship is sterility of culture.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Remarks about the Excellencies of Books</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Someone said to <i>Socrates</i> (Suqrt#),  Are you not afraid that you will injure your eyes by continually looking into books? He replied,  If I save my insight, I don t attend to weakness of eyesight. <i>Mahbkd</i> <a href="#35."> [35]</a> said,  If books had not bound together the experiences of former generations, the shackles of later generations in their forgetfulness would not have been loosed. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Buzurjmihr</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> said,  Books are the shells of wisdom, which are split open for the pearls of character. Another has said,  These sciences are camel stallions  use books to line them up; these couplets are runaways  use books for them as halters. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">By Kulthkm ibn  Amr al-</font><i><font size="3"> Attb+</font></i></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">We have comrades of whose conversation we never weary;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Confiding and trustworthy whether absent or present,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They give us the benefit of their knowledge, a knowledge of what has passed,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">With wise opinion, discipline, and instruction well-guided,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Without cause to be dreaded or fear of suspicion.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Neither their fingers nor their hands shall we fear;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">If you say they are living it is no lie,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Or if you say they are dead you will not be held in error.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Nat#t#h#ah</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> has said, and his name is Ah#mad ibn Ism +l, surnamed Abk  Al+, a more complete account of whom will follow when telling about the secretaries,  The book, he is a companion who does not bother you at the time of your work, nor call you away when you are preoccupied, nor demand that you treat him with courtesy. The book, he is the comrade who does not flatter you too rnuch,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="35.">35.</a></b> The third consonant in this word is uncertain and the name cannot be clearly identified.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">21</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">the friend who does not tempt you, the companion who does not weary you, the counselor who does not mislead you. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Al-<i>Sar+</i> ibn Ah#mad al-Kind+ recited one of his own compositions to me, saying,  I wrote on the back of a piece of a composition, which I gave to a friend of mine and which I bound with black leather:</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">A black object unveils its opposite,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">As night the uncovering of the dawn.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">I have sent you this, and though dumb</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It holds conversation with the eyes about that with which it is entrusted.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Silent it is if its veil be clasped;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Sparkling when it is opened for enjoyment.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">A cover encompassing its light</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Goes back and forth (opens and shuts) containing it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">By means of it souls find enjoyment</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">While worries are cast down abased.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Rank nothing with it for enjoyment,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">For all that you desire it contains. </font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;Abk Bakr al-<i>Zuhayr+</i> recited to me [some verses] of Ibn T#abt#ab about the volumes (<i>daftir</i>):</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;By the favor of Allh have these brethren attained their glory,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">And by their association and fidelity I am exalted (made greater).</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They speak without visible tongues,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Searching are they for hidden secrets.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">If I seek knowledge of some past happening from Arab or Persian,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">About it the books give me information,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">As though I were an eyewitness living in their time,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Even though generations have come and gone.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">If oratory I seek, orators arise,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">My hand sufficing as a pulpit for the volumes.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">How often have I tested men with them!</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">For the mind of a youth is tested by a book of knowledge.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">How often have I defeated a companion by means of them,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">When even an army could not have put him to flight!</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus saith Muh#ammad ibn Ish#q [al-<i>Nad+m</i>]: I have dealt with this subject and similar ones in the chapter on writing and its instruments in a book which I have composed about descriptions and comparisons (<i>al-aws#f wa-al-tashb+ht</i>).</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">22</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a12">R</a>emarks about the Syriac Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Theodore</i></font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> (Tiydkrus) the Commentator recorded in his commentary on the first book of the Torah that  God, Blessed and Exalted, addressed <i>Adam</i> in the Nabataean dialect, which was purer than the Syriac one. The people of Bbil also used to speak it. Then when God made a babel of tongues, the nations being scattered to their districts and localities, the language of the people of Bbil was unchanged, but the Nabataean spoken by the villagers became a broken Syriac incorrectly pronounced. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another person said,  The language used for books and reading, that is the literary form (<i>al-fas#+h#</i>), is the dialect of the people of Syria and H#arrn. From it the scholars derived the Syriac script, coming to an agreement about it. So it was with the other written forms. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another said,  In one of the Gospels or some other Christian book, an angel called Saymkrus <a href="#36.">[36]</a> taught Adam the Syriac writing as it exists in the hands of the Christians of our own day. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Syrians (al-Sur+yniykn) have three scripts: al-Maftkh#, which is called the Estrangelo (al-Ast#rangl) and is the fmest and best  it is spoken of as the Thaq+l script, resembling the Mash#if [Qur nic] script and the Tah#r+r; al-Muh#aqqaq, called Scholastic (Askulth+y) and spoken of as the Mudawwar (round) form, similar to the script of <i>al-warraqkn</i>; al-Serto (al-Sart#), with which they write missives and which resembles the Arabic Riq script.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Here are designs of the Syriac script. <a href="#37.">[37]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a13">R</a>emarks about the Persian Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; It is said that the first person to speak Persian was <i>Gayumarth</i> (Gayo Mareta), whom the Persians call al-Gil Shh, which means King of Clay. He was their Adarn, father of mankind. It is said, the first person to write Persian was <i>B+warasp</i> (B+wrasb), the son of Wandsab known as al-D#ah#h#k, the master of al-Ajdahq. <a href="#38.">[38]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="36.">36.</a></b> Saymkrus may be confused with the symbol of heaven, portrayed by the <i>samayy</i> or <i>semeion</i>. Refer to Ingholt in <i> Memoirs, Connecticut Academy of Arts &amp; Sciences</i>, XII (July 1954), 17-22, 25, 43-46.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="37.">37.</a></b> The designs do not appear in either Flügel or the Beatty MS. For the Syrian scripts, see Abbott, <i>Rise of the North Arabic Script</i>, pp. 17-21.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="38.">38.</a></b> For the Persian scripts, see Browne, <i>Literary History of Persia</i>, I, 76; and Pope, <i>Survey of Persian Art</i>, II, 1707. Al-Ajdahq was Azhi Dahka, a legendary dragon.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">23</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It is said that <i>Fer+dkn</i>, son (descendant) of al-Kayn, when he divided the earth among his sons <i>Salm</i>, <i>Tkr</i>, and <i>*raj</i>, gave as a share to each one of them a third of the inhabited land and wrote a deed for them. <i>Amd</i> the Priest told me that the deed is with the King of China, carried away with the Persian treasures at the time of <i>Yazdigird</i>; it is Allh who knows.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It is said that the first person to write was <i>Jamsh+d</i>, the son of Hkshang, <a href="#39.">[39]</a> who lived in the royal courts of the regions of Tustar. The Persians supposed that when he ruled the world and the jinn and men submitted to him, there yielded to him also the Devil (Ibl+s), whom he commanded to make manifest what was in his consciousness, whereupon he [the Devil] taught him [Jamsh+d] writing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">I have read what was written in the handwriting of Abk  Abd Allh Muh#ammad ibn  Abdks al-<i>Jahshiyr+</i> in the <i>Book of Viziers</i>, which he wrote, that  There were few books and epistles before the regime of <i>Gushtsp</i> the son of Luhrsp, <a href="#40.">[40]</a> the people lacking the ability to speak plainly and to bring forth their inner intentions by clearness of expression. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">One of the things preserved and recorded from the sayings of Jamsh+d:  From Jamsh+d son of Hushng to Adarbdhn+, <a href="#41.">[41]</a> I have commanded thee to administer the seven regions; accomplish this and establish the regime which I have ordered for you. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">From those [the sayings] of <i>Fer+dkn</i>, son of Nazak and Anqayn:  From Fer+dkn, son of Anqayn, to ---------: I have presented you with a land in which is Damwand. <a href="#42.">[42]</a> Receive this and accept a throne of silver gilded with gold. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Among [the records] there was from <i>Kai Kks</i>:  From Kai Kks son of Kai Kubd to <i>Rustam</i>: Verily I have set thee free from</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="39.">39.</a></b> Flügel gives Hkshang, the Beatty MS gives Aw+jhn, but the word in Arabic is usually written as Ushhanj.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="40.">40.</a></b> In Arabic, Kustsb ibn Luhrsb.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="41.">41.</a></b> This is a form for the Persian name Athravan, a legendary form of Magi. The word later became contaminated and connected with the provincial name of dharbayjn. See Firdaws+, <i>Shahnama</i>, I, 56. For Hkshang, see n. 39.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="42.">42.</a></b> Feridkn s mother was Farankk and his ancestor al-Kayn. The names given in the text may be the Persian forms of these two names. Demavend, which is Damwand in Arabic, is the great rnountain north of Tihrn where D#ah#h#k was chained so that Feridkn could rule.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">24</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">the bondage of slavery and made thee to rule over Sijistn. Yoke no one to servitude and rule Sijistn as I have commanded thee. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">When Gushtsp became king, writing was used more extensively. Then there appeared <i>Zoroaster</i>, son of Spitama, lord of the law of the Magi. With the divulging of his wonderful book in all languages, the people themselves began to learn penmanship and writing with more general use and greater skill.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Abd Allh ibn al-<i>Muqaffa </i> said,  The languages of the Persians are the Pahlw+, the Der+, the Pars+, the Khuzistn+, and the Syriac. <a href="#43."> [43]</a> The Pahlw+ (al-Fahlaw+yah) is related to Pahlav (Fahlah), a region which includes five cities: Is#bahn, Rayy, Hamadhn, Mah Nahwand, <a href="#44.">[44]</a> and dharbayjn. The Dr+ (al-Dur+yah) was the language of the cities of al-Mad in, spoken at the king s court. It was derived from presence at the court (<i>al-bb</i>), coming chiefly from the language of the people of Khursn and the East, the speech of the people of Balkh. Priests, scholars, and their like speak Pars+ (al-Fars+yah), the speech of the people of Fars. The kings and nobles used to speak the Khuzistn+ (al-Khkz+yah) in privacy, in places of play and amusement, and with their retinues. The people of al-Sawd <a href="#45.">[45]</a> used to speak Syriac (al-Suriyn+yah), writing in one form of Persian Syriac.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Ibn al-Muqaffa said,  There are seven types of handwriting in Persia. One of them is the form of writing for religion called D+n Daf+r+yah <a href="#46."> [46]</a> with which the religious devotees <a href="#47.">[47]</a> write, and of which the following is an example.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another form of writing is called Watsh Dab+r+yah, <a href="#48.">[48]</a> which has three hundred and sixty-five letters. They use it to write about physiognomy, divination, gurgling of water, ringing of the ears,</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="43.">43.</a></b> The Arabic names are given in parentheses in the sentences which follow.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="44.">44.</a></b> See Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, IV, 846.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="45.">45.</a></b> See Glossary.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="46.">46.</a></b> The correct form is Dab+r+yah.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="47.">47.</a></b>  Religious devotees is a translation of <i>al-wast</i>, a term used for those among the Zoroastrians who called upon God. In the Beatty MS the word is clearly written as <i>al-wastq</i>, but as no such word seems to exist, it may be meant to be either <i>al-wast</i>, as above, or Ahl al-Rustq (People of al-Rustq). See Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, II, 778. The example referred to in the text is missing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="48.">48.</a></b> <i>Watsh</i> means  small. In the Beatty MS the word is not clear, but Dab+riyah is written with a <i>b</i> in a clear way.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">25</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> beckonings of the eyes, nodding, winking, and the like. This script has not been handed down to anyone, so that none of the sons of Persia write with it today. When I asked <i>Amd</i> the Priest about it, he said,  It is going the way of translation, being translated into Arabic writing. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another form of writing is called the Kushtah#, <a href="#49.">[49]</a> which has twenty-eight letters. With it they write contracts, inheritance assignments, <a href="#50.">[50]</a> and land transactions. The rings in Persia are inscribed with this script, and also decorations for garments and rugs, as well as dies for silver coins(s., <i>dirham</i>); this is an example of it [Example 3]. <a href="#51.">[51]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_025a.jpg" width="618" height="78"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 3</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another form of writing is called N+m Kushtah#, <a href="#52.">[52]</a> which has twenty-eight letters and is used for medicine and philosophy. This is an example of it [Example 4].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_025b.jpg" width="620" height="65"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 4</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another form of writing is called the Shh Dab+r+yah, with which the Persian kings used to carry on their own correspondence, apart from the populace. The other people of the kingdom were prevented from using it, as a precaution, lest somebody related to the king might discover the king s secrets. It has not been preserved for us.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="49.">49.</a></b> The letters for Kushtah are clear in the Beatty MS, but as the consonant marks are often omitted, it might also be interpreted as  Kushtaj. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="50.">50.</a></b> The word translated as  inheritance assignments is not correct in the Flügel edition or clear in the Beatty MS. It may be a form meaning  weighings. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="51.">51.</a></b> Flügel gives  . . . dies for gold coins (s., <i> d+nr</i>) and silver coins (s., <i>dirham</i>) . . . . Flügel adds extra lines to this example, and to the two examples which follow, which are not found in either the Beatty MS or MS 1135.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="52.">52.</a></b> <i>N+m</i> means  half. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">26</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Ras il form of writing is just as the tongue speaks, without dots. Some of it is written in the first Syriac dialect spoken by the people of Bbil, being read as Persian. The number of letters is thirty-three, and it is called both Nmah Dab+r+yah and Hm Dab+r+yah. <a href="#53.">[53]</a> It is used by all classes of the kingdom, with the one exception of the kings. This is an example of it [Example 5].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_026a.jpg" width="609" height="51"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 5</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Another form of writing is called Zr Saharayah, <a href="#54.">[54]</a> with which the kings correspond about confidential matters with whatsoever nations they wish. It has forty letters and vocal sounds, with a definite character for each letter and sound. It does not contain anything of the Nabataean tongue; here are examples of it. <a href="#55.">[55]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They have another form of writing, called Rs Saharayah, used for logic and philosophy, with twenty-four letters and also dots. It has not been preserved for us.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They have a form of spelling called Rawrashn, with which they write both the connected and unconnected letters. There are about a thousand words with which to determine things that are similar. An example of this is that anyone who wishes to write <i>kusht</i>, which is   meat in Arabic, writes it <i>basar</i>, but reads it <i>kusht</i>, <a href="#56.">[56]</a> according to this example [Example 6].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_026b.jpg" width="611" height="45"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 6</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Or if he wishes to write <i>nn</i>, which is  bread in Arabic, it is read as <i> nn</i> but written <i>lahum</i>, according to this example [Example 7]. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="53.">53.</a></b> Ras il means  missives ; &nbsp;dots refer to the diacritics to mark consonants. Nmah means  book and <i>hm</i>,  chiefs. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="54.">54.</a></b> This could be Dr Shahrayah; the texts are not clear.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="55.">55.</a></b> The example is missing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="56.">56.</a></b> The Beatty MS gives the consonants <i>r w ar sh n</i>, but instead of <i>r</i>, the letter might be <i>z</i> or <i>d</i>. The word <i> kusht</i> is equivalent to the Persian <i>gosht</i>. <i>Basar</i> is like the Hebrew <i>bsr</i> ( flesh ). See Browne, <i>Literary History of Persia</i>, I, 76.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="57.">57.</a></b> <i>Nn</i> is a Persian word for  bread. <i>Lahum</i> is similar to the Hebrew <i>lechem</i>, which also means bread.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">27</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_027a.jpg" width="587" height="41"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 7</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">So it is for whatever they wish to write, except for such things as need no substitution, being written as pronounced.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a14">R</a>emarks about the Hebrew Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; I have read in some of the ancient books that the first person to write Hebrew was <i> bar</i> ibn Shlikh (Eber son of Shelah), who instituted it among his people, so that they wrote with it. <i>Theodorus</i> (Theodore) mentions that Hebrew was derived from Syriac, but so called because <i>Ibrh+m</i> (Abraham) crossed the Euphrates seeking Damascus, when fleeing from <i>N+mrkd</i> (Nimrod), the son of <i>Kks</i> (Cush), the son of <i>Kan n</i> (Canaan). <a href="#58.">[58]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">In connection with writing, the Jews and Christians suppose, <a href="#59.">[59]</a> without any dispute between them, that the Hebrew writing was on two tables of stone and that Allh, may His name be glorified, handed them over to him [Moses], who when he descended from the mountain and found that they [the Israelites] had been worshipping the idol, became angry with them, in fact so much wrought up that he broke the two tables. He [Theodorus] said,  After that, he [Moses] repented, and Allh, may His name be glorified, ordered him to write on two other tables, so as to inscribe them with the original writing. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">One of the more excellent of the Jews recorded that Hebrew writing was not like the present form, which has been corrupted and altered. Some reliable Jews have said that <i>Yksuf</i> [Joseph], upon whom be peace, when he was the vizier of the ruler of Egypt, used figures and signs for the affairs of the kingdom which he recorded. <a href="#60.">[60]</a> Here is a design of the Hebrew letters [Example 8].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="58.">58.</a></b> In other words, the ancient text claims that the word  Hebrew (<i> Ibrn+</i> in Arabic) comes from the verb  to cross (<i> abar</i>), referring to Abraham crossing the Euphrates.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="59.">59.</a></b> The Beatty MS lacks the material in the text from here until Chap. I, sect. 3, near n. 59. MS 1135 is intact with regards to this passage, but it is not as authentic as the Beatty MS.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="60.">60.</a></b> MS 1135 is followed in this paragraph instead of Flügel.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">28</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_028a.jpg" width="607" height="431"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 8</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a15">R</a>emarks about the Greek Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; I have read in some of the old histories that in early times the Greeks did not know how to write until two men, one of whom was called <i>Cadmus</i> (Qatmus) and the other <i>Aghankn</i>, <a href="#61.">[61]</a> came from Egypt bringing sixteen letters with which the Greeks wrote. Then one of these two men derived four other letters, also used for writing. Later, another man named <i>Simonides</i> (Simknidus) derived four additional ones, making twenty-four. It was in those days that <i>Socrates</i> (Suqrt+s) appeared, according to what <i>Ish#q </i>al-Rhib (Isaac the Monk) records in his history.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">I questioned one of the Greeks who had opinions about his language and noted that he had advanced as far as what is called  etymology, which is Greek syntax. He said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">There are three scripts generally known and used by the Greeks in the City of Peace [Baghdd]. The first of these scripts is called Lepton. The Arabic script which it resernbles is the script of <i>al-warrqkn</i>, with which</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="61.">61.</a></b> Probably Agenor, the father of Cadmus.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">29</font><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">they write Qur nic manuscripts. They [the Greeks], too, write their scriptures with it. It is known as *riy, for the Greek [word meaning]  sacred. </font> </span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">This is an example of it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> They also have a script called Boustrophedon, the equivalent of which among the Arabic scripts is the Thuluth script, with a share of both the Muh#aqqaq and the Mushil. This is an example of it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> They have a script called Sur+t#kn, which is the Mukhaffaf (light) script of the scribes. Its equivalent with us is the Tarasal al-D+wn+ (official correspondence) script with the letters contracted. This is an example of it. <a href="#62.">[62]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They have a script known as the Sm+y, <a href="#63.">[63]</a> which does not resemble anything of ours, for a single one of its letters combines many ideas and abbreviates a number of words. <i>Galen</i> (Jl+nks) has mentioned it in his book <i>Phoenix</i>. The meaning of the name is  fixing of writings. Galen said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">In a public session I gave a comprehensive account of anatomy. When a friend met me some days later, he said to me,  A certain man has recorded that you said thus and thus in your public session. Then he repeated my exact words. I said to him,  From where did you get this? He replied,  I met a scribe skilled in the Sm+y, who kept abreast of you in writing down your words. </font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">This script is learned by the kings and most eminent scribes. The rest of the people are prevented from using it because of its great significance. In the year forty-eight [A.D. 959] a man practicing medicine came to us from Baalbek. <a href="#64.">[64]</a> As he asserted that he could write the Sm+y, we tested what he said. We found that if we spoke ten words, he would pay attention to them and then write down</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="62.">62.</a></b> The quotation probably ends here, after the three scripts used in Baghdd have been mentioned. The Examples are lacking. The scripts were very likely the following: (1) Lepton, <img border="0" src="an_029a.jpg" align="absbottom" width="56" height="18"> (delicate). It was called  sacred, <img border="0" src="an_029b.jpg" align="absbottom" width="35" height="20">. (2) Boustrophedon, badly written in MS 1135; it must be <img border="0" src="an_029c.jpg" align="absbottom" width="117" height="20">. This was an early Greek style of writing used for Solon s laws. (3)  Surit#kn; it has very likely been garbled, but is possibly from the Greek word <img border="0" src="an_029d.jpg" align="absbottom" width="69" height="20">.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="63.">63.</a></b> Srn+y must come from the Greek word for  fix, <img border="0" src="an_029e.jpg" align="absbottom" width="62" height="19">. The Greek shorthand writer was the <img border="0" src="an_029f.jpg" align="absbottom" width="117" height="20">, and the shorthand notes falsely ascribed to Xenophon were the <img border="0" src="an_029g.jpg" align="absbottom" width="149" height="19">. See Greek dictionaries and  Shorthand, <i> Enc. Brit.</i>, XXIV, 1007-8.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="64.">64.</a></b> The original form is  Ba labakk. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">30</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">one. When we asked him to repeat [the words], he did repeat them as we had rendered them.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Ja far</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> ibn al-Muktaf+ said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The reason the Greeks write from left to right is that they believe that it is fitting for a person seated to meet the sunrise in all of its phases. So if he faces the sunrise, the north will be on his left, in which case the left gives way to the right. Thus, the method for a scribe is to go from the north toward the south.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">He also said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Greeks have rules for handwriting, with forms among which are the designated <a href="#65.">[65]</a> letters among the twenty-four letters. These are <i> gamma, delta, kappa, sigma, tau</i>, and <i>chi</i>. They also have letters called  sonants, which are <i>alpha, ayi</i> (<i>epsilon</i>), <i>eta, iota, k</i>a (<i>upsilon</i>), smaller <i>ww</i> (<i>omicron</i>), and the larger <i>ww</i> (<i>omega</i>). <a href="#66.">[66]</a> The feminine letters are four, <i>alpha</i>, the smaller <i>ww</i> (<i>omicron</i>), and the great <i>ww</i> (<i>omega</i>). The masculine letters are <i>ayi</i> (<i>epsilon</i>), <i>eta, iota</i>, and <i>hk</i> (<i>upsilon</i>).</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Declension does not affect any of the Greek letters, except the seven sonant letters, which are known as <i>lagayn</i> and <i>tlagayn</i>. <a href="#67."> [67]</a> The Greek tongue dispenses with six of the letters of the Arabic language: <i>h#a, dhl, d#d#,  ayn, h</i>, and <i>lm-alif</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a16">S</a>cript of the Langobardi and Saxons</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; These are a people between the Greeks and the Franks, close to the ruler of al-Andalus. <a href="#68.">[68]</a> Their writing has twenty-two letteirs and their script is called the Apostolic. <a href="#69.">[69]</a> They start writing from the left toward the right, but their reason for doing so is different from that of the Greeks. They say it is so that the dipping of the ink will be away from the beating of the heart and not toward it, for writing</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="65.">65.</a></b> For the word which has been translated here as  designated, MS 1135 suggests <i>muta  f+yah</i>, ( restored from illness ). Flügel gives <i>muta  qibah</i> ( successive,  coupled ).</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="66.">66.</a></b> MS 1135 omits the smaller <i>ww</i> and after the larger <i>ww</i> has  and it is <i>al-awt#kmaygh</i>, probably garbled for  omega. Evidently one of the feminine letters has been omitted, or else there were only three. Perhaps the fourth was a diphthong.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="67.">67.</a></b> These two words might be <img border="0" src="an_030a.jpg" align="absbottom" width="50" height="18"> ( to say ) and <img border="0" src="an_030b.jpg" align="absbottom" width="68" height="18">, probably meaning  how to say. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="68.">68.</a></b> The Langobardi were Lombards. When <i>Al-Fihrist</i> was written, the Saxons had become a Christian group on the German frontier. Andalus was southern Spain, under Muslim rule.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="69.">69.</a></b> Flügel gives  Af+st#ol+q+ and MS 1135 a garbled form.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">31</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">from the right is from the liver towards the heart. This is an example of it. <a href="#70.">[70]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a17">T</a>he Script of China</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; As Chinese writing resembles inscription, even a clever and skillful scribe becomes weary over it. It is said that even a person with a light touch cannot write more than two or three leaves a day. They write their religious and scientific books with it on fans, a number of which I have seen. Most of them [the Chinese] are dualists and sun worshippers, <a href="#71.">[71]</a> about whom I will speak in detail later on.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">In China there is a form of writing called Collective Writing. That is, for every word written with three or more letters, there is a single character, and each word with an augmented design of characters signifies a great deal. If they wish, they can write the contents of one hundred leaves with this script on only one page.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Muh#ammad ibn Zakar+y al-<i>Rz+ </i>said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">A man from China came to seek me and dwelt with me for about a year. In five months of this time he learned Arabic, both spoken and written, becoming proficient in style, as well as expert and rapid in writing. When he desired to return to his country, he said to me a month in advance,  I am about to set forth and wish that you would dictate to me the sixteen books of <i> Galen</i>, so that I can write them down. I said,  Your time is short and the length of your stay will be sufficient for you to copy only a small part of it. Then the young man said,  I ask you to devote yourself to me for the length of my stay and to dictate to me as fast as you can. I will keep up with you in writing. I proposed to some of my students that they join in this project with us, but we did not have faith in the man, until there was a chance for comparison and he showed us everything he had written.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">I questioned him about the matter and he said,  We have a form of writing known as Collective, which is what you see. If we wish to write a great deal in a short time, we write it with this script. Then later on, if we wish, we transcribe it with a script which is familiar and not abbreviated. He thought that a man who was quick in learning and understanding could not learn it in less than twenty years.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;<b><a name="70.">70.</a></b> The example is missing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="71.">71.</a></b> MS 1135 has Shams+yah, whereas Flügel is uncertain about the name. This sect is dealt with at the end of Chap. IX of <i> Al-Fihrist</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">32</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Chinese have an ink which they compound from a mixture and which resembles Chinese paint. I have seen some of it in the form of tablets, on which was stamped the image of the king. A piece of it suffices for a long period of constant writing. This is an example of their script [Example 9].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_032a.jpg" width="608" height="179"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 9</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a18">R</a>emarks about the Manichaean Script</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; The Manichaean script is derived from Persian and Syriac. Mn+ derived it. The cult is a combination of the Magi system and Christianity. Its letters are more numerous than the Arabic ones. With this script they write their gospels and books of their laws. The inhabitants of M War al-Nahr (the Region beyond the River, Transoxiana) and Samarqand write religious books with this script, so that it is called the Script of Religion.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Marcionites also have a script by which they are distinguished. A reliable person has told me that he has seen it. He said,  It resembles the Manichaean, but is different. <a href="#72.">[72]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">These are the Manichaean letters [Example 10].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_032b.jpg" width="579" height="176"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 10</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="72.">72.</a></b> For the Manichaeans and Marcionites, see Chap. IX, sect. 1.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">33</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">They also have a form with different letters, for they write [Example 11]:</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_033a.jpg" width="590" height="177"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 11</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a19">R</a>emarks about the Script of al-S#ughd</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; A reliable person has said,  I entered the land of al-S#ughd, which is the territory beyond the river. <a href="#73.">[73]</a> S#ughd is called Upper Irn and is an abode of the Turks. Its principal city is Tknkath. <a href="#74.">[74]</a> He also said,  Its people are dualists and Christians. In their language they call the dualists Ah#rkaf. <a href="#75.">[75]</a> This is an example of their writing [Example 12].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_033b.jpg" width="588" height="399"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 12</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="73.">73.</a></b> Sogdiana in Transoxiana; see Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, III, 394.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="74.">74.</a></b> Probably the capital of the *lq region southeast of Tshkand; <i>ibid</i>, I, 900.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="75.">75.</a></b> This name does not appear in books written by T#abar+, Yqkt, Marco Polo, or the Arab travelers.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">34</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a20">R</a>emarks about al-Sind <a href="#76.">[76]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; The people there have different languages and religions as well as numerous scripts. Some of the people who travel in their country said to me,  They have about two hundred scripts. I once saw at the court of the sultan a yellow idol, said to be an image of the Buddha (al-Budd). <a href="#77.">[77]</a> It is a figure on a seat, grasping three fingers with his hand. On the seat there is an inscription of which this is a likeness [Example 13].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_034a.jpg" width="600" height="112"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 13</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">This man mentioned above stated that they usually write with nine letters in this form [Example 14].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_034b.jpg" width="572" height="86"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 14</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The start is with <i>alif, b , j+m, dl, h , ww, zy, h# </i>, and <i>t# </i>. Then after reaching <i>t# </i> they repeat each of the original letters with dots as in this example [Example 15].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_034c.jpg" width="558" height="77"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 15</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="76.">76.</a></b> The lower valley and delta of the Indus in what is today part of West Pakistan. It was conquered by the Muslims, A.D. 712.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="77.">77.</a></b> This was probably a typical image, with a Buddha seated on a lotus leaf, holding with one hand three fingers of the other hand. The Arabic text has  thirty, but this must be an error. See Grüinwedel, </font><i><font size="2">Buddhist Art in </font></i></span><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">India</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">, pp. 130, 134, 173, 202.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">35</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus they become <i>y , kf, lm, m+m, nkn, s+n,  ayn, f </i>, and <i>sd</i>, making eighteen. <a href="#78.">[78]</a> If they reach <i>s#d</i> they write as in the following Example, placing two dots under each letter in this way [Example 16].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_035a.jpg" width="586" height="102"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 16</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Thus they become <i>qf, r , sh+n, t , th , kh , dhl</i>, and <i>z# </i>. When they reach <i>z# </i> they write the original letter <i>alif</i> with three dots under it [Example 17]. <a href="#79.">[79]</a> Thus they account for all of the</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_035b.jpg" width="582" height="64"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 17</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">letters of the alphabet and write whatever they please.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a21">R</a>emarks about the Negroes</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; The races of Negroes are the Nubians, the Bijah (Beja), the Zaghwah, the Murwah (Meroe), the Istn, <a href="#80.">[80]</a> the Barbar (Berbers), and the types of blacks like the Indians. <a href="#81.">[81]</a> They write like the Indians because of their proximity, but have no known script or writing of their own.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Al-<i>Jh#iz#</i> mentioned in his book Al-<i>Bayn</i> that the Negroes have an oratory and eloquence belonging to their own cult and language. A person who saw and witnessed this [custom] said to me,  If</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="78.">78.</a></b> The texts have <i> asharah  asharah</i> ( twenty ) but <i>thamn+  asharah</i> ( eighteen ) must be the words meant, as there are two groups of nine letters each.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="79.">79.</a></b> MS 1135 differs; it has  they write the original letter like this and then shows the design of an <i>alif</i> with the <i> maddah</i> or  long sign over it and three dots under it.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="80.">80.</a></b> See Mas kd+, III, i ff.; cf. Khaldkn, <i>Muqaddimah</i> (Rosenthal), I, 120, and also, I 110, with map, for the geographical regions. Istn may refer to the Negroes of southern  Irq, famous for the Zanj Rebellion of A.D. 869.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="81.">81.</a></b>  Al-Sind is translated as  the Indians, as it seems to refer to the people instead of the area.  Blacks like the Indians probably signifies other people in southeast Asia.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">36</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">affairs perplex them and difficulties hard press them, their speaker sits raised above the ground and, looking down, speaks in a way that resembles growling and muttering, but which the rest of them understand. He also said,  When there appears in the speech the counsel they are seeking, they act upon it. It is Allh who knows.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Some travelers have told me that the Bijah have a script and form of writing, but it has not reached us. Those who go about mention that for religious purposes the Nubians write in Syriac, Greek, and Coptic. The Abyssinians have a script like the H#imyarite letters, going from left to right. They separate each of the words by means of three dots, dotted like a triangle between the letters of the two words. This is an example of the letters, which I copied from the library of al-<i>Ma mkn</i>, but not with the same handwriting [Example 18].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_036a.jpg" width="590" height="304"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 18</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The letters <i>t </i> and <i>th </i> are one; the letters <i>h# </i> and <i> kh </i> are one; the letters <i> ayn</i> and <i>ghayn</i> are one; and the letters <i>t# </i>and <i>z# </i> are one.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a22">R</a>emarks about the Turks and Those Related to Them</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><span lang="en-us"><font size="3"> <span style="font-family: Times New Roman">&nbsp;</span></font></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp; The Turks, the Bulgar, the Blagh , the Burghaz, the Khazar, the Lln, and the types with small eyes and extreme blondness have</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">37</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">no script, except that the Bulgarians and the Tibetans write with Chinese and Manichaean, whereas the Khazar write Hebrew. <a href="#82.">[82]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">My information about the Turks is what Abk al-<i>H#asan</i> Muh#ammad ibn al-H#asan ibn Ashns related to me. He said:&nbsp;</font></span></p> <blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> H#amkd</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> H#arr, the Turk, al-Makl+ from al-Tkrkn+yah, <a href="#83.">[83]</a> who was one of those who left his country because of haughtiness and rage, told me that the great Turkish king, if he desired to write to a lesser king, summoned his vizier and ordered the splitting of an arrow. Then the vizier traced on it characters understood by the Turkish nobility and indicating the meaning intended by the king and comprehended by the person to whom it was sent.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">He supposed that this scant design represented many ideas and that it was used for truces and peace treaties, as well as at the times of their wars. He mentioned that they carefully guard an arrow inscribed in this way and fulfill their engagements for its sake. It is Allh who knows.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a23">R</a>ussia</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; A man whose word I trust told me that one of the kings of Mount al-Qabq (the Caucasus) sent him to the king of Russia. He believes that they have writing inscribed on wood, and he showed me a piece of white wood with an inscription on it. The following is an example, but I do not know whether these are words or single letters [Example 19].</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <img border="0" src="an_037a.jpg" width="588" height="78"></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Example 19</font></span></i></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="82.">82.</a></b> The Bulgar are Bulgarians. The Blagh were the Vlachs or Blakia, the Walachia of Rumania. Burghaz is a part of Bulgaria, and probably an old tribal name. The Khazar were on both sides of the Itil, or Volga. The Lln or  Alln were situated next to Armenia, near the Khazar. See  Vlachs, <i> Enc. Brit.</i>, XXVIII, 166-68;  Bulgaria (Burghaz), IV, 768;  Khazars, XV, 774. See also Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, II, 436, for Khazar; IV, 343, for Lln; I, 817, for Tibet. See also Mas kd+, Vol. II, Chap. 17, beginning p. 1.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="83.">83.</a></b> This may mean from Turunt, the lower Dvina region of Russia, or from Tawwaz. See Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, I, 894.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">38</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a24">T</a>he Franks</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Their writing resembles the Greek script, but is more even; we may have seen it on the Frankish swords. The queen of the Franks wrote to al-<i>Muktaf+</i> a letter on white silk, dispatched by a servant who happened into her country from the direction of North Africa. It courted the friendship of al-Muktaf+ and asked him to marry her. The servant s name was <i> Alb</i>. He was one of the employees of Ibn al-Aghlab. This is an example of their writing. <a href="#84.">[84]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a25">T</a>he Armenians and Others</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; The Armenians as a rule write in Greek and Arabic, because of proximity to those cultures. Thus their gospels were written in Greek and their script resembles Greek writing, though it is not Greek. <a href="#85.">[85]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The kings of the Caucasus and its slopes, which are Llakz, Shirwn, and Zawzan, have no script. <a href="#86.">[86]</a> Although there is a common language in the region, each group has its own dialect and expressions differ. We shall speak in detail about them in the proper place in the book.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a26">R</a>emarks about Sharpening Pens</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; Nations use different ways of sharpening their pens. The Hebrew way of sharpening is with an extreme angle. The Syriac trirn is with an angle to the left, or maybe to the right, or perhaps they turn the pen on its back, or split the reed in two, sharpening one half which they call <i>s#ulb</i> and use for writing.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Greek trim is a very oblique deviation to the right, because they write from the left to the right. The Persian trim is with the nib of the pen fringed. The scribe separates it either against the floor or with his teeth, so as to embellish the penmanship. Sometimes they write with the lower end of an unsharpened reed, calling</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="84.">84.</a></b> The Example is lacking. Al-<i>Muktaf+</i> was the caliph A.D. 902 908. Ibn al- Aghlab must have been Ziydat Allh, the last ruler of the Aghlab dynasty in what is today Tunisia. He reigned A.D. 903 909.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="85.">85.</a></b> This last phrase occurs in MS 1135, but not in Flügel.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="86.">86.</a></b> The Caucasus region is called Mount al-Qabd. For Llakz, Shirwn, and Zawzan, see Yqkt, <i>Geog.</i>, I, 220; II, 957. The consonants of the last name are clearly written in the MS 1135 as&nbsp; <i>z r z q</i>, &nbsp;but this must be an error and meant to indicate Zawzan, which lies between Armenia and dharbayjn.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">39</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">this reed <i>khm</i>. With it they write <i>ilhamh d+nt</i>, which are books of religious inspirations, dowries, and other things. <a href="#87.">[87]</a></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Chinese write with hairs which they fit into the heads of reeds as painters do. The Arabs write with various kinds of pens and [have various] ways of trimming them. The custom is to have a slant to the right, but the scribes trim pens without an angle.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> <a name="a27">R</a>emarks about Types of Paper</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;&nbsp; It is said that first of all <i>Adam</i> wrote on clay. Then for a period after that the peoples wrote on copper and stone for the sake of durability. This was before the Flood. To meet the needs of the moment they also wrote on wood and the leaves of trees, as well as on the <i>tkz</i>, <a href="#88."> [88]</a> bark with which their bows were mounted to make them last long. We have discussed this matter in detail in the chapter on philosophy.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Later on they tanned hides upon which people wrote. The Egyptians wrote on Egyptian paper made from the papyrus reed. It is said that the first person to do this was the prophet <i>Yksuf</i> (Joseph), for whom be peace.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The Greeks write on white silk, parchment, and other things, as well as on Egyptian scrolls and <i>al-fulh#n</i>, <a href="#89.">[89]</a> which is the skin of wild asses. The Persians used to write on the skins of water buffaloes, cows, and sheep. The Arabs write on the shoulder blades of the camel and [on] <i>likhf</i>, which are thin white stones, and on <i> usb</i> or palm stems; the Chinese on Chinese paper made of <i>h#ash+sh</i>, <a href="#90.">[90]</a> which is the most important product of the land; the Indians on brass and stone, also on white silk.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">Then there is the Khursn+ paper made of flax, which some say appeared in the days of the Bank Umayyah, while others say it was during the  Abbsid regime. Some say that it was an ancient product and others say that it is recent. It is stated that craftsmen from China</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="87.">87.</a></b> The <i>khm</i> was a white reed pen used by the Persians. <i>Ilhm</i> means  inspirations and <i>d+nt</i> is from the word for  religion.  Dowries is <i>siyq</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="88.">88.</a></b> <i>Tkz</i>, or <i>toz</i>, was the inner bark of a tree used by the Persians to wrap their bows and also as a writing material. See Fück in <i>Ambix</i>, IV, Nos. 3 and 4 (February 1951), 113 n. 16.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="89.">89.</a></b> This word seems to be a form derived from <i> pulh#n</i>. <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 90.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="90.">90.</a></b> This may mean  herbs, but more likely refers to  hemp. </font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;<img border="0" src="line_down.gif" width="596" height="18"></font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">40</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">made it in Khursn like the form of Chinese paper. Its types are the Sulaymn+, the T#alh#+, the Nkh#+, the Fir awn+, the Ja far+, and the T#hir+.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">For a number of years the people of Baghdd wrote on erased sheets. The registers spoiled at the time of <i>Muh#ammad</i> ibn Zubaydah <a href="#91.">[91]</a> were parchments, which after being erased were once more written upon.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">It is said that books used to be made of parchment tanned with <i>nawrah</i> <a href="#92.">[92]</a> and exceedingly dry. Later the Ckfic tanning was with dates, giving flexibility.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><i> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3">The end of the First Section of the First Chapter of the book</font></span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="3"> Al-Fihrist, <i>with accounts of the learned men. To Allh alone is the praise</i>.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="91.">91.</a></b> He is better known as al-<i>Am+n</i>, the elder son of Hrkn al-Rash+d, who engaged in a civil war with his brother during the early years of the ninth century.</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2">&nbsp;</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"> <span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times New Roman"><font size="2"><b> <a name="92.">92.</a></b> Lime mixed with arsenic, used to remove hair from the body before prayer and also by women in the baths. For further information about paper see Mez, <i>Renaissance of Islam</i>, pp. 467-69; Khaldkn, <i> Muqaddimah</i> (Rosenthal), II, 391, 392.</font></span></p> </blockquote> <p class="MsoPlainText">&nbsp;</p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><span lang="en-us"> <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">[<a style="text-decoration: none" href="an_summary.htm">Previous</a>] [<a style="text-decoration: none" href="an_3_2.htm">Next</a>]</font></span></p> <p class="MsoPlainText"><span lang="en-us"> <font face="Times New Roman" size="3">[<a href="index.html" style="text-decoration: none">Back to Index</a>]</font></span></p> </body> </html>